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Beekeeping

(Apiculture)

 

A Step-by-Step Guide Beekeeping

 

Beekeeping is a rewarding hobby that offers fresh honey, pollination for gardens, and a fascinating look into the life of bees. If you’re wondering how to start beekeeping, this step-by-step guide will walk you through everything you need to know to keep bees successfully, from choosing the right beekeeping equipment to managing your hive year-round. Proper care and management are crucial to keeping bees alive, especially given the challenges faced by honey bee colonies, such as threats from the varroa mite and other environmental stressors.

 

Key Takeaways

 

Beekeeping is a fun and rewarding hobby that lets you enjoy fresh honey while helping the environment. Keeping bees comes with challenges like varroa mites, small hive beetles, and swarming, but regular hive inspections and seasonal care help keep your colony healthy. Early spring is the perfect time to start, and Italian honey bees are a great choice for beginners because they’re gentle and productive. If you’re beekeeping in your backyard, check local regulations, choose a good hive location, and make sure your bees have plenty of food. With the right setup and a little patience, beekeeping can be an exciting and rewarding experience!

 

How Much Does It Cost to Start Beekeeping?

 

Beekeeping requires an initial investment of approximately $800-$1,000. Luckily, most of these initial purchases will last you throughout your beekeeping journey. Here is a glimpse into what you can expect to spend for each crucial piece of equipment.

Hive

Depending on the type of hive you choose, your investment will vary. A two-box Langstroth hive costs about $180, while the Classic Flow Hive costs $649.

It is recommended to begin beekeeping with two hives. You’ll be able to compare the progress of each hive and try different methods, and of course, if you lose one hive, you can continue your journey without starting from zero.

You’ll need to spend time getting to know the different parts of your hive body. From the queen excluder, brood box, honey super, and more.

Equipment

Some pieces of equipment are non-negotiable. You’ll need three essential tools: a brush, a hive, and an uncapping tool.

The hive tool is the most versatile— you can use it to open the hive, separate boxes, and scrape off extra propolis. You can buy these three tools for approximately $35 in total

Beekeeping Suit & Protective Gear

Most beekeepers choose a white suit, but the color is up to your discretion.

A bee suit should have deep and durable pockets, breathability, comfortable and flexible gloves, a properly fitting veil, and easy washing instructions. On average, a beekeeping suit costs $50.

Bees

It is possible to buy individual and entire bee colonies locally, but most new beekeepers purchase them commercially. 

You can buy a nucleus colony (nuc) or packaged colony.

We will get into that later, but the average price for a three-pound package of bees is $110. A nuc will set you back about $200.

Miscellaneous

Investing in other tools and accessories will make your life easier. Consider a hive stand, a queen excluder, a feeder, a smoker, and a honey extractor.

*Keep in mind that beekeeping kits are also available. Kits are the easiest and most cost-efficient option. You won’t get to hand-pick each item, but you will save approximately $200.

 

Choosing a Hive

 

The hive you choose as a first-time beekeeper depends on several factors.

Consider:

  • The number of bees you plan to integrate.
  • The amount of honey you expect the hive to produce.
  • Your strength and physical abilities.
  • The amount of space you have for the hive.
  • How much interference you are okay with causing in the hive?
  • How much time do you have to maintain the hive?
Langstroth Hive

The Langstroth is the most common hive in the US. It is a collection of boxes, also known as supers, stacked on top of each other. It forces the bees to build upwards, which isn’t natural, but it is an excellent choice for commercial beekeeping.

Most beekeepers use Langstroth frames with a foundation, meaning that the bees can focus more on honey production than building a structure. Frames with a foundation are compatible with a honey extractor. Foundationless frames will require you to use the old crush and strain method. The design of this hive allows you to remove each frame individually to check progress or harvest.

Because of its popularity, finding replacement parts and advice about the Langstroth hive is easy. One negative aspect is that you will significantly disrupt the bees during an inspection by removing all the heavy upper boxes, weighing between 60 and 100 pounds each.
Warre Hive

Designed to mimic a hollow tree, the Warre hive makes bees feel at home. Instead of using frames, this hive uses top bars. Because of this, you can only harvest boxes, not individual frames. Warre hives produce about half of the amount of honey as Langstroth hives.

After harvesting a box from the top, you must add a new box to the bottom of the stack. Luckily, you will only need to do this once a year, and a full box is only about 30 pounds each, but you’ll need some muscle nonetheless.

The Warre hive is a great choice if natural beekeeping is your goal. You can even harvest the honeycomb and use it for other side projects.
Top Bar Hive

Instead of a vertical system, like the other two options, the top bar hive is a horizontal system with approximately 25 bars, ten or more of which will be used by the queen for the brood.

It is raised off the ground and requires no leaning or heavy lifting. However, this hive produces the least amount of honey compared to the Warre and Langstroth hives.

The combs hang freely, and you need to handle them delicately. The design allows for cross-combs, making the harvesting process more tedious. This hive requires more inspections, but they’re easily done and minimally invasive. One of the major downfalls of this option is that it can not be expanded

This is only an introduction to the three most popular types of beehives. There are multiple other options, including the Flow Hive, Dome Hive, Hex Hive, Horizontal Hive, and more.

*Remember, all hives should be placed on dry, level ground.

 

Ordering a Bee Colony

 

Just like people, there are different types of honey bees. 

The six most popular races are:

  • Italian bees (Apis mellifera ligustica) – are the bee equivalent of the person voted to be the “most likely to succeed” in high school. They are pretty mild-mannered and are great at populating the hive, which makes them great at honey production.
  • Carniolan (Apis mellifera canica) – bees would be the runner-up in popularity. They are gentler than the Italians, not known to rob other hives as much as the Italians, and really build up numbers quickly.
  • Caucasian bees (Apis mellifera caucasica) – This is the teddy bear of the bee races. It’s a very gentle bee and is very similar to the Carniolan variety, with two exceptions. Their baby boom is a little slower than the Italian variety, and therefore, there are those who find them to be less profitable in the honey arena.
  • German black bees (Apis mellifera mellifera) – It is able to survive long, cold winters more often than other strains of honey bees. However, due to their defensive nature and susceptibility to brood diseases like American and European foulbrood, this stock has lost significant favor with beekeepers all over the world.
  • Africanized bees (The Misunderstood Bee) – This highly aggressive strain of honey bee has some advantages, if one learns to work with them. They begin foraging at a younger age, typically produce more honey, and have a significantly smaller colony size, even though they reproduce at a faster pace.
  • Buckfast bees (The mutt of honey bee stock) – The characteristics such as resilient behavior against pests and other elements that make this a quality strain of honey bee.  Yet, if you can tolerate the increased aggressive behavior and monitor the colony, this bee stock can last years without replacement.

Depending on your climate, you’ll want to choose a specific type of bee.

Once you’ve settled that, you need to find a reputable seller. Once again, asking for advice from your local apiary community will help significantly. Remember that the temperatures are usually too warm to ship bees when summer arrives. 

Schedule your bee delivery for the beginning of spring.

Package of Bees vs. Nucleus Colony

Package of Bees Nucleus Colony Swarms
$110 on average $200 on average $0.00
Can be shipped Can’t be shipped

A swarm is a group of bees that have left their original hive, usually due to overcrowding, and are looking for a new home.

Capturing swarms can be an exciting and cost-effective way to start your beehive, but it requires experience in swarm management.
The colony hasn’t accepted the queen Worker bees and queen bees already know how to work together
Easy to install in any type of hive Difficult to install in Warre or Top Bar Hives
Bees must start from scratch when introduced to the hive Arrives with frames or brood and honey stores
Bees may abscond after installation Easy installation for the beekeeper and bees
Must be ordered well in advance of the season Can be ordered later in the season

 

Installing the Bees

 

Every beekeeper has their method of installing bees. Bees are calmer at night so installing them in the evening is best.

If you want to slow the bees down before introducing them, you can slightly spray them with sugar water; however, this step is optional. Here is the method that has worked well for me.

  • After changing into protective clothing, remove five frames from one side of the brood box.
  • Remove the plywood cover of the bee package and tap the box to encourage the bees to move toward the bottom of the box.
  • Remove the sugar feeder to access the queen cage. You may need to use your hive tool to pry the feeder from the wall.
  • Take a moment to inspect your queen bee. Make sure she is alive and note some of her features. You’ll need to be able to spot her easily throughout your beekeeping journey, so be sure to learn what the queen looks like and practice your queen-spotting skills.
  • Remove the plug from the queen cage to expose the candy. Place the queen between two of the remaining frames in the box, towards the center of the box. The cage should have a hook of some sort that allows you to secure her there easily.
  • Pour the bees into the hive.

Carefully reinsert the frames and close your hive.

While it will be difficult to resist, do not check on your bees for a few days. Doing so may irritate them, cause them to leave the hive, or even reject their queen. After four or five days, open the hive to ensure that the queen has been released; if she has not, help her.

Finally, decide which food source you will use to get the bees started in their new hive. They will enjoy frames with honey or syrup until they’ve built up their own reserves.

 

The Roles And Responsibilities Of Each Honeybee

 

Within a honeybee hive, various types of bees play unique roles in maintaining its overall functioning.

Understanding these distinct responsibilities is crucial to appreciate the complexity of a hive’s social structure. Here are the primary types of honeybees you’ll encounter:

Bee Type Description
Queen Bee The queen bee is the matriarch of the hive. She’s responsible for laying eggs to sustain the population and maintain harmony among the bees. Her pheromones also serve as a communication tool.
Worker Bees Worker bees are predominantly female bees. They take on a range of tasks, such as nursing larvae, foraging for nectar and pollen, building and maintaining the comb, and protecting the hive from intruders.
Drone Bees Unlike worker bees, drones are male bees. They have no stingers and are primarily responsible for mating with queens from other colonies. Drones do not forage or carry out any other tasks within the hive.

The Life Stages Of Honeybees: From Egg To Adult

Honeybees undergo a fascinating transformation from humble eggs to fully developed adults, each stage serving a specific purpose in the hive ecosystem.

Let’s explore the life stages of honeybees:

  • Egg: The queen bee lays tiny eggs in the comb cells. These eggs typically hatch within three days.
  • Larva: Once the eggs hatch, the larvae emerge. They are fed a special diet known as royal jelly, which allows them to grow rapidly. Larvae are entirely dependent on worker bees for their nourishment.
  • Pupa: After approximately six days, the larva spins a cocoon around itself, entering the pupal stage. Inside the cocoon, the fundamental structures of the adult honeybee develop.
  • Adult: Finally, the fully formed adult bee emerges from the cocoon. These bees are ready to assume their respective roles within the hive, ensuring its survival.

 

How to Start Beekeeping in Your Backyard

 

Backyard beekeeping is a great way to keep bees close to home, but it requires proper planning:

  • Check Local Regulations: Some areas have zoning laws or require permits for beekeeping.
  • Choose a Suitable Location: Pick a quiet, sunny spot with wind protection and nearby water sources.
  • Set Up Your Hive Properly: Use a hive stand to keep the hive elevated and prevent pests.
  • Provide Food Sources: Ensure your bees have access to flowering plants throughout the seasons.
  • Respect Your Neighbors: Educate them about bees and position your hive away from property lines.

Step 1: Learn the Basics of Beekeeping

Before you start beekeeping, it’s essential to educate yourself. Many beekeepers recommend taking an online beekeeping course or connecting with a local beekeeper to gain hands-on experience. Consider joining a local association, as they can provide guidance on how to handle local bees and navigate your local climate.

What is Beekeeping?

Beekeeping, also known as apiculture, is the practice of maintaining colonies of honey bees in man-made hives. This fascinating hobby combines science, art, and manual labor, requiring a deep understanding of bee biology, behavior, and ecology. Beekeepers manage their hives to harvest honey and other bee products, support crop pollination, and contribute to environmental research. By keeping bees, you’ll gain insight into the intricate world of honey bees and their vital role in our ecosystem.

Benefits of Beekeeping

Beekeeping offers a multitude of benefits that extend beyond just harvesting honey. Here are some key advantages:

  • Honey Production: One of the most rewarding aspects of beekeeping is the ability to produce your own honey. This natural sweetener is not only delicious but also packed with health benefits.
  • Pollination: Honey bees are essential pollinators for many crops, gardens, and wildflowers. By keeping bees, you contribute to food security and the health of local ecosystems.
  • Environmental Conservation: Beekeeping helps conserve honey bee populations, which are crucial for maintaining biodiversity and ecological balance.
  • Educational Opportunities: Beekeeping is a hands-on way to learn about biology, ecology, and environmental science. It’s a great educational tool for both adults and children.
  • Community Engagement: Joining local beekeeping associations and participating in community events fosters social connections and a sense of community. You’ll meet like-minded individuals and share your passion for beekeeping.

Step 2: Go Over the Basics

Before diving into beekeeping, it’s important to prepare yourself for the challenges and responsibilities that come with this rewarding hobby.

Check for Allergies

Bee stings are an inevitable part of beekeeping. If you’re allergic to bee stings, it’s crucial to take necessary precautions or consider alternative hobbies. Consult with a medical professional to determine the severity of your allergy and discuss possible treatment options. Safety should always be your top priority.

Get a Mentor

Having an experienced beekeeper as a mentor can be incredibly valuable, especially during your first year. A mentor can provide hands-on training, share their knowledge, and offer support when you encounter challenges. They can guide you through the nuances of hive management, helping you become a confident and skilled beekeeper.

Step 3: Choose the Right Beekeeping Equipment

Beekeeping requires specific tools and gear to ensure you and your bees stay safe and productive.

Here are some beginner-friendly beekeeping equipment kits:

  • New Bee Beginner Beekeeping Starter Kit – A great choice for first-time beekeepers.
  • Premium Starter Kit – Includes essential tools plus a hive tool, protective gear, and more.
  • Deluxe Starter Kit – A complete set with everything needed for serious beekeepers.
  • Queen Excluder – Essential for managing hives for honey production. It keeps the queen out of honey supers to prevent brood from contaminating honey, encourages bees to draw comb above the excluder, and helps maintain cleanliness in honey storage.

Essential Equipment: Hive Tool

  • Beehive: Choose a hive style that suits your needs (Langstroth, Top-Bar, Warre, etc.).
  • Hive Stand: Keeps the hive off the ground for ventilation and protection.
  • Hive Tool: Helps separate frames and pry open hive entrances.
  • Hive Cover: Protects the hive from rain, wind, and predators.
  • Protective Gear: Bee suit, gloves, and veil to prevent stings.
  • Smoker: Calms bees during hive inspections.
  • Queen Excluder: A queen excluder is essential for managing hives for honey production. It helps keep the queen out of honey supers, preventing brood from contaminating the honey. This tool also encourages bees to draw comb above the excluder and maintains cleanliness in honey storage.

Step 4: Acquire Your Bees

To start beekeeping, you’ll need bees! The most common route, is called a package—a small screen box with about 10,000 loose bees. The queen, which typically bears no relation to the other honeybees, stays separated in a cage.

You can source them in different ways:

  • Purchase a Nucleus Hive (Nuc): A small hive with a healthy queen, worker bees, and young bees, including baby bees. Monitoring baby bees is crucial as they represent the future of the colony and are essential for its overall health.
  • Buy a Package of Bees: Includes a caged queen and a mix of bees.
  • Capture a Swarm: Some experienced beekeepers collect swarms to populate their hives.
  • Split an Existing Hive: If you know an experienced beekeeper, they may offer a split hive.

Step 5: Set Up Your Hive and Introduce the Bees

  • Place your hive in a location with morning sunlight, wind protection, and access to flowers and water.
  • Introduce the queen bee and colony carefully, allowing time for adjustment. During hive inspections, it is crucial to monitor baby bees to ensure they are developing properly and are not impacted by pests like small hive beetles.
  • Ensure your hive entrances are clear and properly positioned.

Step 6: Perform Regular Hive Inspections

Regular hive inspections help maintain the health of your colony.

Check for:

  • A Healthy Queen: Look for a healthy queen laying eggs and queen cells if the colony is replacing her.
  • Brood Health: Ensure fertilized eggs and sealed brood indicate a thriving hive.
  • Honey Storage: Monitor honey production and the amount of honey stored for winter.
  • Pest & Disease Prevention: Watch for small hive beetle, European foulbrood, and other common issues.
  • Varroa Mite Control: Monitor and control varroa mites to maintain hive health. Proactive mite control measures are crucial to prevent colony failures and the transmission of viruses that can severely impact bee populations.

Step 7: Make Sure Your Hives Make It Through the Seasons

Each season requires different hive management strategies:

  • Spring: Inspect for winter damage, check for a healthy queen, and ensure good nectar flow.
  • Summer: Watch for swarming behavior, provide ventilation, and ensure the honey bee colony has adequate food.
  • Fall: Prepare for winter by ensuring enough honey collection and protecting against pests. Proactively manage varroa mites by conducting regular checks and applying treatments to keep their population under control.
  • Winter: Insulate the hive if needed, reduce hive entrances to prevent drafts, and monitor the colony without opening it too often.

Step 8: Watch Out for Common Beekeeping Challenges, Including Varroa Mites

Varroa mites are tiny, parasitic pests that attach to honey bees and feed on their bodily fluids, weakening the bees and spreading harmful viruses. If left untreated, a varroa mite infestation can devastate a colony, making regular hive inspections and mite control essential for beekeepers. Besides these mites, beekeeping comes with many other challenges, though there are some proven solutions:

  • Swarming: Ensure that your bees always have enough room to avoid swarming. Add another box or harvest a few frames if the hive becomes too congested.
  • Robbing: If you see hairless bees, hear a louder buzzing noise than usual, or see wasps near your hive, it may be under attack. You must intervene as soon as possible to save your colony. To prevent this from happening, be sure not to drop any honey or sugar syrup near the exterior of the hive. When there is a nectar shortage, other bees will hunt for hives to rob.
  • Small Hive Beetle Infestations: Use traps and keep the hive strong and well-managed.
  • Bee Stings: As a beekeeper, you will endure your fair share of bee stings. Wearing your protective gear is one of the best ways to avoid bee stings. Additionally, bees sting when they feel threatened. Keep your calm when you are around them, and move gently. If you do get stung, remove the stinger as soon as possible, clean the sting spot with soap and water, ice it to stop the swelling, and consider taking Benadryl.
  • Queen Issues: If the population of your hive has fallen, if there is minimal brood and eggs, if you have laying workers, or if there’s a noticeable change in the temperament of your bees, you may be queenless. While the bees may find a new one on their own, you must closely monitor the situation and consider purchasing a new queen bee.
  • Honey Shortages: If bees don’t have enough stored honey, supplement with sugar water.

 

One Final Note..

 

Remember that you will probably not be able to harvest honey within the first year of installing a hive. A colony needs approximately 75 pounds of honey or about nine full honey frames to survive the winter.

Without harvesting in the first year, you’ll increase the likelihood of your bees surviving the winter and most likely have a surplus of honey in the next beekeeping season.

Keeping bees is a fulfilling and possibly lucrative hobby. The most significant learning curve is finding the delicate balance between keeping an eye on your bees without invading their space too often.

Beekeeping is an exciting and rewarding journey. By following this guide and using the right beekeeping equipment, you’ll be on your way to becoming a good beekeeper. Whether you're keeping bees for honey production, pollination, or simply for the love of honey bees, this step-by-step guide will help you start beekeeping with confidence. Connect with local beekeepers, take an online beekeeping course, and enjoy your new hobby!

 

Beekeeping Youtube Channels

 

  • 628 Dirt Rooster Bees - 628 Dirt Rooster channel is a beekeeping channel dedicated to learning by doing and having fun in the process.
  • A Canadian Beekeeper’s Blog - Follow Ian’s channel to submerse yourself into the world of a Canadian commercial beekeeper life!
  • Barnyard Bees - Beekeeping honey bees at Barnyard bees is very enjoyable. We love teaching beekeeping.
  • Brook Hill Honey - Mr. G's Honeybees - Hobbyist Beekeepers documenting their journey. The ups, the downs, and the joys of beekeeping. Swarms, splits, honey harvesting, rendering wax and the battle with the Varroa mite.
  • Bruces Bees - I have had so much fun working with honey bees and it seems that each experience is an adventure! I decided that I would create brucesbees so that others could go along for the ride.
  • Bug Farmer - This channel is an exhibition of my adventures in beekeeping and urban and sustainable farming. No reason why the average person living in a neighborhood or populous area cannot raise bees and create edible and sustainable landscaping.
  • The Bush Bee Man - This isn't your typical beekeeping 101 channel, but you will learn about beekeeping supplies we use, especially when it comes to extracting honey.
  • Castle Hives - This channel is all about Beekeeping, with some added vacation videos and every now and then some every day stuff.
  • David Burns - We are passionate about beekeeping and honey bees. We help people learn how to keep bees for pollination, for fun or for extra income.
  • Devan Rawn - This channel is to present beekeeping in a fun way, to answer questions
  • Flow Hive - Our invention - the biggest innovation in beekeeping for 150 years - was originally launched in 2015 and is Indiegogo's highest-funded project ever. Includes our patented Flow Frames, allowing you to collect fresh honey straight from the hive.
  • Frederick Dunn - This channel covers a wide array of topics and subjects. I cover lots of insect-related topics as well as general rural living.
  • The Honeystead - Exploring the beauty that the world has to offer, whether it's through the art of beekeeping, the wonders of herbalism, the adventure of foraging, or any other captivating journey you're curious about.
  • Jason Chrisman - Beekeeping how to's and what to do's. Basic to advanced beekeeping tutorials. Learn bee biology, bee hive equipment, bee pests, and lots of other topics. Join me as I work with the bees in and out of the hive.
  • Jeff Horchoff Bees - The videos I make primarily highlight the many aspects of bee keeping that I endevor in, but there is also the occasional video on woodworking that relates to bee keeping. Please, join me on my adventures as the bee keeper for the monks.
  • Jerome Bee Farm & Homestead - Our videos chronicle our modern homesteading journey with beekeeping, gardening, chickens, and just about anything to do with the hard work maintaining our land and the tools and equipment we use.
  • JP the Beeman - My channel showcases my obsession with honey bees, removing them from manmade structures of all types & from natural structures such as trees.
  • Kamon Reynolds - Tennessee's Bees - Beekeeping videos for the successful beekeeper! Beelife is amazing and there are new tools, techniques, and beekeepers to meet!
  • Massachusetts Prepper - This channel started out strictly as a prepping channel and quickly evolved into a variety of content. I still do product reviews of all kinds but over the last couple of years (2018 through 2019) the channel has evolved into a beekeeping channel
  • Mike Barry - This channel was initially set up to share videos with family and friends out of state. I like to share some of my bee videos, so I have cleaned it up a bit and kept a few of those on here and will add some as I make them.
  • OFF GRID with DOUG & STACY - We share our adventure to a sustainable life, growing our own food from vegetables to meat as we HOMESTEAD.
  • Pine City Apiary - This channel is to document my journey, my discoveries with bees and beekeeping. Learning each time as I go. Join me in that adventure!
  • Richard Noel - Beekeeper coming to grips with life as a professional. Work hard, play hard. The rewards are there in life. You only get the one chance, so I tend to do the best I can!
  • Texas Beeworks - Professional beekeeper Erika Thompson takes you inside the hive with exciting educational and instructional beekeeping videos.
  • Treatment Free Beekeeping - Learn about Treatment-Free Beekeeping, keep your bees strong and your honey clean. This channel contains all sorts of talks, how to videos, podcast episodes, and tutorials, teaching the concepts and practices that will make keeping bees fun, enjoyable, and maybe even profitable.
  • Vino Farm - Beekeeping · Growing: Organic Vegetables, Apples, Grapes, Blueberries · 18th Century Home Improvement · 21st Century New England Homesteading
  • Walls Bee Man - Actual beekeeping videos by a real beekeeper.

 

Beekeeping Supplies

 

Beekeeping Organizations

 

Missouri Local

As of March 2016, Missouri had 35 local beekeeping associations. See the Missouri State Beekeepers Association website for a list of the local associations and information on when and where they meet: mostatebeekeepers.org/local-clubs.

Missouri State

  • The Missouri State Beekeeping Association holds an annual conference, publishes a bimonthly newsletter and offers robust member-exclusive content on its website: http://mostatebeekeepers.org

National

Partnership associations

  • FieldWatch, a nonprofit organization that operates DriftWatch, a mapping tool for communication among beekeepers, farmers and pesticide applicators on the presence of apiaries and pesticide-sensitive crops 
  • Honey Bee Health Coalition, a group of almost 40 food, agriculture, government and conservation organizations and agencies focused on achieving and supporting a healthy population of honey bees and other pollinators 
  • Missouri Pollinator Conservancy Program, an MU Extension program that seeks to minimize economic losses for farmers and beekeepers by adequately managing row-crop pests while minimizing the effect of pesticides on honey bee colonies
  • Pollinator Stewardship Council, a nonprofit group that strives to protect pollinators vital to a sustainable and affordable food supply from the adverse effects of pesticides

 

 

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Copyright © 2000 - 2025    K. Kerr

Most recent revision July 12, 2025 08:38:32 AM

 

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